Ambiguity in Translation Essay

Abstract This paper deals with translation ambiguity and target polysemy problems together. many Words have more than one translation across languages. Such translation ambiguous words are generally translated more slowly and less Accurately than their unambiguous counterparts. Additionally, there are multiple source of translation ambiguity including within language semantic ambiguity and near synonymy, the present study examines the extent to which word context and translation dominance reduce the difficulties associated with translation ambiguity , using the primed stemming from the two source , especially translation ambiguity derived from semantic ambiguity (meaning translation ambiguity) and translation ambiguity derived from near synonymy (synonym translation ambiguity). Translation unambiguous pairs were recognized more quickly and accurately than translation ambiguous pairs. In this paper I have used qualitative and quantitative methods of research to investigate And describe ambiguities in the text translation. Key words: translation ambiguity – polysemy problems – ambiguous and unambiguous texts – qualitative and quantitative – semantic ambiguity . Introduction Ambiguity is a pervasive phenomenon in language which occurs at all levels of linguistic Analysis. Out of context, words have multiple sense and syntactic categories, requiring Listeners to determine which meaning and part of speech was intended. Morphemes may also be ambiguous out of context , as in English. Phonological forms are often mapped to multiple distinct word meaning, as in the homoPhonemes,( too , two and to). Syllables are almost always ambiguous in isolation , meanIngs that they can be interpreted as providing incomplete information about the word The speaker is intending to communicate. Syntactic and semantic ambiguity are frequent enough to present a substantial challenge To natural language processing. The fact that that ambiguity occurs on so many linguistic levels suggests that a far reachIng principle is needed to explain its origins and persistence. The existence of ambiguity Provides a puzzle for functionalist theories which attempt to explain properties of linguIstic systems in terms of communicative pressure . One might imagine that in perfect Communication system , language would completely disambiguate meaning. The communicative efficacy of language might be enhanced since there would be no danger of comprehenders incorrectly inferring the intended meaning confusion about ( who is on first) could not occur. Indeed, the existence of ambiguity in language has been argued to show that the key Structures and properties of language have not evolved for purpose of communication or Use. The natural approach has always been : is language well designed for use, understood typically as use for communication? I think that is a wrong question. The use of language for communication might turn out to be a kind of epiphenomenon. If you want to make sure that we never misunderstand one another , for that purpose language is not well designed , because you have such properties as ambiguity. If we want to have the property that the things that we usually would like to say come out Short and simple , well , it probably does not have that properties. Statement of problem Translation is a challenging activity and there are few difficulties that appear during translation process. so every language describes the word in different way and has its own grammar structure , grammar rules and syntax variance . During this process the following are the most particular problems : problems of ambiguity : these originate from structural and lexical differences between languages and multiword units like idioms and collocations. Problems of grammar : there are several constructions of grammar with rules that are poorly understood. Problems of language : these includes idiom terms neologisms , slang difficult to Understand, respect to punctuation conventions and proper name of people, organization And places. Problems of source texts: these are illegible text, spell incorrectly. It can easily be seen that language differ from one to another in terms of many ways and Not just in grammar subjects . for example, small words are hard to translate and the Meanings of common words depends on context. Besides, some words, are untranslatabLe when one wishes to remain in the same grammatical category that is why translators Face of with many problems. Another problem is that translators have a hard time to convey the same meaning to the Other language. For example: translation of literature, poems and songs are impossible To express their same meanings in another language. So these texts need to be familiar With two languages . Translation process is not only to translate the words, but also to Find ones that rhymes as well. Keep in mind , lack of vocabulary knowledge cause certain problems. for those reason Translators need and in-depth knowledge of two language to translate advanced texts and Avoid using dictionary that many times make this process very boring. The last problem is that translators will encounter complex grammar structures that they Must interpret correctly. Techniques to overcome translation problems In this part of article I have presented some techniques in brief to overcome the problems That could be useful in translation , such as : back translation , consultation and Collaboration with other people and pre testing or piloting such as interviews. Research question In case of translation ambiguity we are face with some critical questions and that most Important of them is the real meaning of ambiguity that can be designed like below questions. What does language ambiguity mean? Something is ambiguous when it can be understood in two or more possible senses or Ways . If the ambiguity is in a single word it is called lexical ambiguity, in a sentence or Clause, structural ambiguity. In the field of ambiguity we are face with two interrelated questions: 1 what is being denied? And 2 what would have been dissolved? One answer equates ambiguity within the semantic, given that equation ambiguity can be Overcome by resolving either the founding lack of clarity in the first instance or in the Second addressing and eliminating contestation posed on the level of meaning. Review of literature We tend to think of language as a clear and literal vehicle for accurately communicating ideas. But, even when we use language literally , misunderstandings arise and meanings shift . People can be intentionally or unintentionally ambiguous. Nevertheless , when someone uses a potentially ambiguous sentence or expression, usually the intention was to express only one meaning . As we know , most words can have denotations, apparent meaning , connotations and implied or hidden meaning . Also, we often use words in a figurative way. even though figurative language is more often used in poetry and fiction it is still very common in ordinary speech. Ambiguity is a poetic vehicle. It is human nature to try to find meaning within an exchange . a text is given to us and in Return we give our interpretation . Our own associations give understanding of what is Presented to us . The characteristic of the late 20th century, as well as of postmodern Literature , is that certainties are continuously called into question and thus allegory becomes a suitable form for expression. Allegory is a classic example of double discourse that avoids establishing a center within the text. Because in allegory the unity of the work is provided by something that is not explicitly there. In contrast to symbols, which are generally taken to transcend the sign itself and express The universal truths, allegories metaphors divided the sign, exposing its arbitrariness. ( I used sign here in the sense of the direct intended meaning). Thus, the allegorical impulse in contemporary literature can be seen as a reflection of the Postmodern emphasis on the reader as co-producer, since it invites the reader s active Participation in making meaning. Metaphors are indeed highly appropriate postmodern devices, because they are obvious Vehicle for ambiguity . A living metaphor always carries dual meanings, the literal or Sentence meaning and the conveyed or utterance meaning. A metaphor induces comparison , but since grounds of similarity are no t always given, Metaphors serve to emphasize the freedom of the reader as opposed to the authority of The writer . historically, we can point to Saussure as initiating the discussion related to the Arbitrariness of the sign as described in his course of general linguistics. The signifier may Stay the same but the signified will shift in relation to context. In terms of change over time, Saussure states whatever the factors involved in the change Whether they act in isolation or in combination , they always result in a shift in the relationship between the sign and the signification. Methodology Addressing qualitative and quantitative method appears to be rather ambiguous task, Especially when we consider our experience of working on the issue. On the one hand , we experienced fears that working on this topic may damage one s Reputation as a scientist: talking about oneself may appear indecent and self-aggrandizing Unless one belongs to a science studies disciplines. Additionally, the messenger maybe Called to account for the message. The message being that social sciences are inherently Structured by historical , local , social and personal characteristics of those involved in Them . anyway , we should not forget that quantitative approaches have been seen as more scientific and objective. discussion one problem with attempting to identify different kinds of lexical and semantic ambiguity is that there is not definitive consensus among commentators of how these terms should be defined . semantic ambiguity has a fairly wide range of linguistic concern . Palmer discusses ambiguity as an attribute of the discipline of semantics in general. Semantic ambiguity in Palmer s formulation would refer to potentially multiple meanings of the relations within language (sense) and relations between language and the world (reference) . In other words , it would refer to a pattern or structure of meaning of a linguistic presentation , such as a sentence , a paragraph, a poem, a novel, a scene from a movie. the ambiguity is to be found in the sense relationships of the piece as a whole or in parts of a whole . it is difficult to discuss lexical and semantic ambiguity apart from pragmatics . Because so many commentaries bring in all three kinds in their discussions. For instance , Poesio refers to semantic ambiguity as having simply a multiplicity of Meanings , but links it to the structure or grammar of a language in a way that assigns Responsibility for the ambiguity to the deliberate intent of the one who originates but Underspecified, what the language means or its rhetorical intent. tropes: metaphor, metonym, allegory, homonym, homophone, homograph, paradox these are only a few of the language figures of ( tropes) providing concepts useful to understanding ambiguity in language. Metaphor: This refers to the non-literal meaning of a word, a clause or sentence. Metaphors are very common; in fact all abstract vocabulary is metaphorical. A metaphor compares things. A metaphor established by usage and convention becomes a symbol. Thus crown suggests the power of the state, press = the print news media and chair = the control (or controller) of a meeting. metonym : a word used in place of another word or expression to convey the same meaning. (eg: the use of brass to refer to the military officer) allegory: the expression by means of symbolic fictional figures and actions of truths or generalization about human existence. homonym: when different words are pronounced , and possibly spelled the same way. (eg: to , too, two) homophone: where the pronunciation is the same but standard spelling differs , as in flew (from fly), flu ( influenza) , and flue ( of a chimney). homograph: when different words spelled identically, and possibly pronounced the same. (eg: lead the metal and lead /what leaders do). paradox: the statement that is seemingly contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true . a self-contradictory statement that at first seems true. an argument that apparently derives self-contradictory conclusions by valid deduction from acceptable premises. Significant of research The significant of research about ambiguity is in clearing the real meaning of a word in Different situations . as I said before a word in English and any other language has many different meanings that its real meaning depends on the situation that those words are used . one word may have different meanings in sport , medical , computer, science , military fields and so on . But translators should have much more information about the target and source language till choose the proper meaning for the used words and should be much experienced at this field and had much researches to be in perfect position of translation. Conclusion We have provided several kinds of evidence for the view that ambiguity results from a Pressure for efficient communication . we argued that any efficient communication system will necessarily be ambiguous when context is informative about meaning. The units of an efficient communication system will not redundantly specify information Provided by the context. these units will appear not to completely disambiguate meaning. Language can not exist without ambiguity , which has represented both a curse and a Blessing through the ages. Language is a very complex phenomenon. Meanings that can be taken for granted are in  Fact only the tip of a huge iceberg. Psychological , social and cultural events provide a moving ground on which those Meanings take root and expand their branches. The overlapping meanings emerge from The tropes , ways of saying something by always saying something else. in this sense ambiguity in literature has a very dark side, when important documents are interpreted in different ways , resulting in persecution, oppression , and death . the meaning in each situation appears as an effect of the underlying structure of signs. These signs themselves do not have a fixed significance, the significance only exist in the individual . sign is only what is represents for someone . Disambiguation is a key concept in computational linguistics. The paradox of how we tolerate semantic ambiguity and yet we seem to thrive on it , is a major question for this discipline . at this time , there is no computer capable of storing enough knowledge to process what human knowledge has accumulated. It can be seen, there for that ambiguity in language is both a blessing and curse. references (1) Clare, Richard Fraser. (Historian) Informal conversations about historal consequences of different interpretations of the Bible (2) Engel, S. Morris. â€Å"Fallacies & Pitfalls of Language† from Fallacies & Pitfalls of Language: The Language Trap. Ed Paperback Nov. 1994. (3) Fortier, Paul A. â€Å"Semantic Fields and Polysemy: A correspondence analysis approach† University of Manitoba. Paper. (4) Frath, Pierre â€Å"Metaphor, polysemy and usage† Universite MarcBloch, Department d’anglais. France. (5) Freud, Sigmund â€Å"El sentido antitetico de las palabras primitivas† Obras Completas Ed. Biblioteca Nueva. (6) Fromkin, Victoria/Rodman, Robert. â€Å"An introduction to language† Ed. Harcourt. (7) Hobbs, Jerry R. â€Å"Computers & Language† SRI International, Menlo Park, CA.

Becoming a scuba instructor

The life of a SCUBA instructor is something that people who have a passion for the water and the beach have imagined as ideal. In fact, it would be the perfect career for most because they think that it would mean spending the rest of one’s life on the beach, languishing under the warm tropical sun and taking a dive in the deep blue cold water.All of these benefits while enjoying a modest salary that allows for enjoyment of the other luxuries in life. For those who become successful as SCUBA instructors, the benefits are even better.One can become a world class instructor who explores old wrecks underneath the ocean and even have their own diving schools. Yet these are all dreams and perceptions of what it is like to be a SCUBA instructor. Not everyone gets a chance to enjoy this life. In fact, it is quite difficult and challenging to become a full fledged SCUBA instructor.In order to become one, there is a series of tests and practical examinations that one needs to undergo. The step after that involves taking additional training to ensure that the licensure is complete. As one SCUBA instructor put it, â€Å"Everyone always imagines a life of relaxation.They always feel as if it is simply swimming once in a while and taking people down for fun dives while getting paid for it. † This is not always the case because it involves a major lifestyle and career change. This also means that there are added responsibilities.The first step in being a SCUBA instructor lies in being able to understand the risks and responsibilities that are involved as well as figuring out the first step that one needs to take to pursue this career. The profession of SCUBA instructor, as previously mentioned, is not an easy one.SCUBA instructor is more of a technical term but the actual role that one plays in most dive operations is one of a dive-master rather than a SCUBA instructor. The main bulk of SCUBA resort operations are taking people down for diving trips.Providing i nstructions to new divers or those who want to improve their skills is only a small part of the entire business. Therefore, for those who want to be SCUBA instructor professionals, training as a dive-master is also necessary. This has been labeled as one of the first disappointments or reality checks that an eager SCUBA instructor has to deal with.It is not so much about teaching students how to dive but also acting as an underwater guide to those who already know how to dive but merely want somebody to lead them and show them around the dive area.This leads to the first aspect that must be considered before pursuing a career as a SCUBA instructor; making sure that if the thought of diving at the same spot in shallow water is something that one will be able to do day in and day out. To ensure that this does not happen, it is usually recommended that SCUBA instructors or applicants find the written job description first and get the proper certification.This leads to higher job satisf action. The reason for this is that it allows for more flexibility with regards to career. Under certain job descriptions, SCUBA instructors may be allowed to handle different classes in different sites depending on the size of the school.The pay grade is much higher, however, depending on the school and the lessons that are taught to the students. Another factor which affects the job pay is the experience that the instructor has which usually means that more experience leads to a better job and hence higher pay. This in return usually leads to a higher rate of job satisfaction.This job satisfaction, however, also requires certain additional qualifications that SCUBA instructors need to comply with. These requirements usually have to deal with the other tasks that a SCUBA instructor may be required to do.For example, most SCUBA instructors are required to have the basic knowledge on how to repair SCUBA gear. This means that the instructor must be proficient with not only one brand o f SCUBA equipment but must also have the knowhow for the other brands. Another requirement that is becoming common among SCUBA instructors is the basic knowledge to pilot a boat.While this is definitely not included in the job description, it is necessary because a number of resort owners would like to save on costs by having one person perform multiple positions. This experience in navigating a boat also carries the additional requirement of nautical licensure and familiarity with the parts of boat from a 15’ skiff to a 48’ cruiser.This also means that while no expertise that is on a specialist level is required a certain level of proficiency with regard to the workings of these basic machines is needed.One of the main draws of being a professional SCUBA instructor is the fact that it allows the individual to live on an island. This is, however, also one of the biggest risks and sources of stress. The reason for this is that living on an island also means that one is isolated from a lot of things in life. From a professional standpoint, this means that when the other duties and requirements, such as those mentioned above, are required, one must be able to deal with those problems with the basic tools.Most dive locations do not have the specialists who can deal with the problem as soon as it happens. These shops are usually located on the main island and need to travel to reach the destination of the dive spot. This means that there is a lag time and any good SCUBA instructor must be able to deal with the events happening immediately.This job hazard is usually very stressful and sometimes even hazardous. The next problem is with regard to the personal life of a SCUBA instructor. Being isolated on dive resorts also means being isolated from members of the family or society.As some studies have shown, prolonged isolation usually leads to certain problems and may lead to greater dangers such as alcoholism which is very dangerous for a SCUBA instruct or. Assignments on dive resorts can last for a span as short as six (6) months and extend to durations as long as six (6) years.Another aspect that a SCUBA instructor must deal with is in regard to interpersonal skills. One must remember that being a SCUBA instructor is not only showing people how to dive but also how one is able to teach.In this line, teaching entails that a person must also be able to communicate to the students just what exactly they must do. The most common problems that even experienced SCUBA instructors need to deal with are the fact that they have to teach people without offending them.Most vacationing divers are largely inexperienced and are not quite adept at even the most basic of diving regulations. In educating these people, it is necessary for the SCUBA instructor to be able to encourage them to learn more without putting them down.This is important because safety practices must always be observed before diving. Other problems with teaching also center on those who have been certified but are only taking their first dive. These are perhaps the most difficult bunch to instruct because they feel that they already know what to do.The self important attitude that most of these certified divers carry is a scary thing because they could always forget the basic safety regulations. As mentioned earlier, in diving, the most important thing is safety because there are a lot of hazards that a diver must deal with during the operation.This is more difficult considering the fact that certain countries have different diving regulations from others and these certified divers may feel that the SCUBA instructor is not an authority. The challenge here, therefore, lies in being able to deal with this people to ensure the safety of the group. Now that these basic requirements and training exercises have been elaborated on, it is also important to discuss the basic steps that one needs to undertake before becoming a SCUBA instructor.The most important step that one needs to take lies in certifying that one is in excellent medical condition. Due to the hazards that divers are exposed to at work, one must be physically fit to endure the rigors of diving. Specific requirements such as a current medical report including blood work, chest X-ray and physical fitness tests are necessary.There is also the matter of valid passport, work permits and of course certification to be a SCUBA instructor. The life of a SCUBA instructor is indeed a very promising one if one is able to carefully study and lay out their plan.As discussed previously, all the considerations such as proper training and expertise are very necessary. Individuals must be prepared for the tasks and responsibilities that the job requires. Aside from this there is also the matter of proper permits and interpersonal skills. One overlooked aspect of being a SCUBA instructor lies in understanding the difference between visiting and island the living on an island because these are two (2) very difficult things.Most people usually feel that living on an island is similar to visiting an island but these are not the same. The reason for this is because people must now deal with the living expenses in relation to the salary that they are provided. Most dive resort owners provide salary based on the cost of living scale of the location. As such, while it may seem that the SCUBA instructor is earning so much more than the locals, the conversion rate when compared to other countries may be much lower than average.This means that while one can live the life of a king on a tropical island, he or she may be a pauper in some other part of the world. To summarize, becoming a SCUBA instructor is not for everyone. While the lure of warm and sunny tropical beaches is definitely alluring, the fact that this is considered a job also means that there is work to be done. It is not all just fun and games. The positive side of this, however, is the fact that it really is much easier to do a job that one loves and enjoys.

Adolescent health screenGCU

Health History and Screening of an Adolescent or Young Adult Client Save this form on your computer as a Microsoft Word document. You can expand or shrink each area as you need to include the relevant data for your client. Student Name: Date: January 28, 2014 Biographical Data Patient/Client Initials: Phone No: N/A Address: Birth Date: Age: 12Sex: f Birthplace: Upland, CA. Marital Status: Single Race/Ethnic Origin: Caucasian Occupation: StudentEmployer:N/A Financial Status: (Income adequate for lifestyle and/or health concerns. Is there a source of health insurance? Employment disability? ) Insurance provided by parent Source and Reliability of Informant: Informant: Client, Reliable Past Use of Health Care System and Health Seeking Behaviors: Routine exams and vaccinations Present Health or History of Present Illness: Present health is good Past Health History General Health: (Patient’s own words) â€Å"I only get sick when my little brother brings something home† Allergies: (include food and medication allergies) NKA Reaction: Current Medications: N/A Last Exam Date: 8/2013Immunizations: 8/2013 Childhood Illnesses: UTI Serious or Chronic Illnesses: N/A Past Health Screening (see â€Å"Well Young Adult Behavior Health Assessment History Screening† below) Past Accidents or Injuries: None Past Hospitalizations: none Past Operations: none Family History (Specify which family member is affected. ) Alcoholism (ETOH use/abuse): Maternal grandfather Allergies:Mother and brother-seasonal; maternal grandmother- penicillin Arthritis:N/A Asthma: Maternal Aunt Blood Disorders:N/A Breast Cancer:Maternal great grandmother Cancer (Other): Bladder- maternal grat uncle Cerebral Vascular Accident (Stroke):Paternal grandfather Diabetes:Maternal grandfather Heart Disease:N/A High Blood Pressure:Father Immunological Disorders:N/A Kidney Disease:N/A Mental Illness:N/A Neurological Disorder:N/A Obesity:N/A Seizure Disorder:N/A Tuberculosis:N/A Obstetric History (if applicable) Gravida:N/ATerm:Preterm:Ab/incomplete: Course of Pregnancy (length of pregnancy, delivery date, method of delivery, length of labor, complications, baby’s weight, baby’s condition): Well Young Adult Behavioral Health History Screening Socio-Demographic Content and Questions: What organizations or activities (community, school, church, lodge, social, professional, academic, sports) are you involved in? Softball, GATE, Science club, and Soccer How would you describe your community? â€Å"It’s nice. Sometimes it gets boring but I like it here. † Hobbies, skills, interests, recreational activities? â€Å"I like making crafts like bracelets and I also like to make things out of colorful duct tape. † Military service: Yes_______ No_x______ If yes, overseas assignment? Yes________ No_________ Close friends or family members who have died within past 2 years? N/A Number of relatives or close friends in this area? â€Å"Most of my family and all my friends live around me. I only have two uncle that live far away {San Diego}†. Marital status: Single_x_____ Married________Divorced_________Separated_________ In serious relationship________ Length of time_________ Environmental Content and Questions: Do you live alone? Yes________ No __x______ When did you last move? â€Å"My mom moved 3 years ago and my dad moved 2 years ago. † Describe your living situation? Number of years of education completed? 6 Occupation? Student If employed, how long? Are you satisfied with this work situation? Do you consider your work dangerous or risky? Is your work stressful? Over the past 2 years have you felt depressed or hopeless? No Biophysical Content and Questions Have you smoked cigarettes? Yes_______ No___x_____ How much? Less than ? pack per day_____ About 1 pack per day? ______ More than 1 and ? packs per day______ Are you smoking now? Yes_______ No________ Length of time smoking? ______________ Have you ever smoked illicit drugs? Yes__________ No___x______ If yes, for how long? ___________ Do you smoke these now? Yes__________ No __________ Do you ingest illicit drugs of any kind? Yes_________ No___x_______ If so, what drugs do you use and what is the route of ingestion? _________ How long have you used these drugs _________________ Review of Systems (Include both past and current health problems. Comment on all present issues. ) General Health State (present weight – gain or loss, reason for gain or loss, amount of time for gain or loss; fatigue, malaise, weakness, sweats, night sweats, chills ): Good Skin (history of skin disease, pigment or color change, change in mole, excessive dryness or moisture, pruritis, excessive bruising, rash or lesion): Seasonal dryness Health Promotion (Sun exposure? Skin care products? ): Does not wear sunscreen Hair (recent loss or change in texture): No change Health Promotion (method of self-care, products used for care): Washes hair 4 times a week but conditions daily Nails (change in color, shape, brittleness): No change Health Promotion (method of self-care, products used for care): Wears nail polish Head (unusual headaches, frequency of headaches, head injury, dizziness, syncope or vertigo): Dizziness when drinks coffee Eyes (difficulty or change in vision, decreased acuity, blurring, blind spots, eye pain, diplopia, redness or swelling, watering or discharge, glaucoma or cataracts): Recent change in glasses prescription Health Promotion (wears glasses or contacts and reason, last vision check, last glaucoma check, sun protection): Wears glasses at all times Ears (earaches, infections, discharge and its characteristics, tinnitus or vertigo): No history of aches or infections Health Promotion (hearing loss, hearing aid use, environmental noise exposure, methods for cleaning ears): Uses q-tips for daily cleaning Nose and Sinuses (discharge and its characteristics, frequent or severe colds, sinus pain, nasal obstruction, nosebleeds, seasonal allergies, change in sense of smell): Within normal limits Health Promotion (methods for cleaning nose): Blows nose when congested. Mouth and Throat (mouth pain, sore throat, bleeding gums, toothache, lesions in mouth, tongue, or throat, dysphagia, hoarseness, tonsillectomy, alteration in taste): Within normal limits Health Promotion (Daily dental care – brushing, flossing. Use of prosthetics – bridges, dentures. Last dental exam/check-up. ):Brushes once to twice a day, but does not floss. Sees dentist q 6mo. Neck (pain, limitation of motion, lumps or swelling, enlarged or tender lymph nodes, goiter): Within normal limits Neurologic System (history of seizure disorder, syncopal episodes, CVA, motor function or coordination disorders/abnormalities, paresthesia, mood change, depression, memory disorder, history of mental health disorders): Within normal limits Health Promotion (activities to stimulate thinking, exam related to mood changes/depression): In accelerated programs at school (GATE) Endocrine System (history of diabetes or insulin resistance, history of thyroid disease, intolerance to heat or cold): Within normal limits Health Promotion (last blood glucose test and result, diet): No history of glucose testing. Admits to eating candy 3-4 times a day. Breast and Axilla (pain, lump, tenderness, swelling, rash, nipple discharge, any breast surgery): Within normal limits Health Promotion (performs breast self-exam – both male and female, last mammogram and results, use of self-care products): Does not perform self breast exams Respiratory System (History of lung disease, smoking, chest pain with breathing, wheezing, shortness of breath, cough – productive or nonproductive. Sputum – color and amount. Hemoptysis, toxin or pollution exposure. ): Within normal limits Health Promotion (last chest x-ray, smoking cessation): No history of chest x-ray, has never smoked Cardiac System (history of cardiac disease, MI, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, chest pain, angina): Within normal limits Health Promotion (last cardiac exam): No history of cardiac exam Peripheral Vascular System (coldness, numbness, tingling, swelling of legs/ankles, discoloration of hands/feet, varicose veins, intermittent claudication, thrombophlebitis or ulcers): Within normal limits Health Promotion (avoid crossing legs, avoid sitting/standing for long lengths of time, promote wearing of support hose):Stays physically active Hematologic System (bleeding tendency of skin or mucous membranes, excessive bruising, swelling of lymph nodes, blood transfusion and any reactions, exposure to toxic agents or radiation): Within normal limits Health Promotion (use of standard precautions when exposed to blood/body fluids): No exposure to blood/body fluids Gastrointestinal System (appetite, food intolerance, dysphagia, heartburn, indigestion, pain [with eating or other], pyrosis, nausea, vomiting, history of abdominal disease, gastric ulcers, flatulence, bowel movement frequency, change in stool [color, consistency], diarrhea, constipation, hemorrhoids, rectal bleeding): Occasional diarrhea. BM once to twice per day Health Promotion (nutrition – quality/quantity of diet; use of antacids/laxatives): Admits to poor diet consisting of processed and fast food. Home cooked meals consumed 3 times a week. Musculoskeletal System (history of arthritis, joint pain, stiffness, swelling, deformity, limitation of motion, pain, cramps or weakness): Within normal limits Health Promotion (mobility aids used, exercises, walking, effect of limited range of motion): Exercise achieved in PE at school and softball practice. Urinary System (recent change, frequency, urgency, nocturia, dysuria, polyuria, oliguria, hesitancy or straining, urine color, narrowed stream, incontinence; history of urinary disease; pain in flank, groin, suprapubic region or low back): Within normal limits Health Promotion (methods used to prevent urinary tract infections, use of feminine hygiene products, Kegel exercises):Wipes front to back to prevent UTI Male Genital System (penis or testicular pain, sores or lesions, penile discharge, lumps, hernia): N/A Health Promotion (performs testicular self-exam): Female Genital System (menstrual history, age of first menses, last menstrual cycle, frequency of cycles, premenstrual pain, vaginal itching, discharge, premenopausal symptoms, age at menopause, postmenopausal bleeding): No menses. Within normal limits Health Promotion (last gynecological checkup, pap-smear and results, use of feminine hygiene products): No gynecologic check-up history or feminine products used. Sexual Health (presently involved in relationship involving intercourse or other sexual activity, aspects of sex satisfactory, use of contraceptive, is relationship monogamous, history of STD): Not sexually active Health Promotion (safe-sex practices): Will be starting sexual education course in school in two weeks. Nursing Diagnoses: Based on this health history and health screening, identify three nursing diagnoses that would be applicable for this client as well as your rationale for your selection of each nursing diagnosis. Include: One â€Å"actual† nursing diagnosis with rationale for choice of this diagnosis. Imbalanced nutrition; less than body requirements R/T consumption of fast/processed foods daily AEB adolescent’s statements. Consumption of fast food in adolescents has increased rapidly since the 1970’s and it is estimated that 75% of American adolescent eat fast food 1 or more times per week (Ebbeling, et. al, 2004). Fast food has been linked to childhood obesity and T2DM. These processed meals contain little nutritional value, are not balanced, and provide empty calories. As with this adolescent, fast food is a inexpensive option for a quick meal. As a child of divorced parents, her mother works and is often in need of a quick and low cost meal for her and her children. One wellness nursing diagnosis with rationale for choice of this diagnosis. Readiness for enhanced nutrition R/T improving food choices AEB adolescent’s desire to change diet and recent diagnosis of grandfather’s T2DM. Family history of T2DM is a major contributing risk factor in the development of the disease (Valdez, 2009). Adolescents are at an age where they can make their own food choices but lack the ability to acquire funds to purchase food. While discussing her diet, the adolescent stated that there are healthier food options she could make, even if they come from a fast food establishment. One â€Å"risk for† nursing diagnosis based on the health screening with rationale for choice of this diagnosis. Risk for impaired skin integrity R/T lack of sun screen use and UV exposure AEB frequent sun burns. â€Å"Extended sun exposure in childhood and adolescents increases the probability of skin cancer in adulthood† (Saridi, et. al, 2013). While discussing sun exposure and the dangers of skin cancer, she stated â€Å"That’s an older person’s problem. † A lack of education of the dangers and the â€Å"It won’t happen to me† attitude are contributing factors in her noncompliance with sun protection.

Somalia Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Somalia - Research Paper Example Since this time there has been social and political turmoil consisting of factions of ethnic and political sides battling each other for supremacy, in 1991 the northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland which though it is not recognized as a nation by the world has maintained a stable existence. Currently the leader accepted by the world of Somalia is Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed who was elected by expanded parliament in 2009; his goal is to transition Somalia into a representative government. (Somalia) With much of the nation outside of the northern section in chaos this will be a difficult task. Pirate activity, chaos in the streets and a complete lack of infrastructure or basic necessities in many other locations throughout the nation will make it difficult at best to re-establish a representative government. Unfortunately, there is not much known regarding the actual approaches being used to re-establish the government in Somalia. Government: Somalia should form a government to allow stabilization to occur within the nation itself. By forming a representative government the various current warlords and power figures can work together to provide what is best for the people within the borders of this nation. A representative government allows the people to first elect their representatives and to agree on who they should send to the central governing body. After arriving it is then the duty of the representative to truly represent the needs and desires of the people that elected them. The representative in this case should be very communicative with the people that have sent them, simply because due to the current state of affairs in this nation if communication lapses it could cause additional strife or result in miscommunications which could result in far more violence and crime. The principles following this initial gathering should be given a concrete status so as to assist in the formation of a single formative governing body. According to Bernard Manin, â€Å"By principles I do not mean abstract, timeless ideas or ideals, but concrete institutional arrangements that were invented at a particular point in history and that, since that point, have been observable as simultaneously present in all governments described as representative† (Manin 4). It becomes necessary to ensure that the people who are submitting to this government are both fully aware of it and embrace the idea. Unless this is made clear with the people there will continue to be internal strife resulting in and not limited too civil war, as a result it is of the utmost importance that they understand what it is that is being attempted. Piracy: Piracy and Somalia are seemingly synonymous in the international business world, and while it is true that many incidents have occurred recently involving Somalian pirates the entire nation of people cannot be judged by such a relative few actions. Recently within the first few months of 2011 over 140 att acks were registered worldwide as a result of Somalian pirates. And while there is a large group of ships patrolling these waters, â€Å"More than 20 naval vessels now patrol the coast of Somalia as part of multinational coalition established in December 2008. The flotilla includes ships from the EU, U.S. and NATO, as well China and Russia† (Rai). Because over 40% of the entire world’s oil supplies are transported through this area the

Causes of school Violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Causes of school Violence - Essay Example In this paper, I am going to argue that domestic abuse, anger, overcrowded schools, medical problems, and gang activities cause school violence. First, school violence is caused by domestic violence. This is because the students who face a lot of domestic violence at home become violent too. Domestic violence include insults and physical violence. The students who face this problem at home become violent and therefore become dangerous at school. Students who are abused at home carry this violent attitude to their school and start molesting the other students (â€Å"School Violence† web). Such students accept domestic violence as a way of life and thus they see it as normal to molest fellow students in school. The schools that have many students are likely to have more violence. Overcrowded schools especially the schools that are in low income areas report many cases of school violence. We can argue that overcrowding in schools makes it difficult for teachers and school management to control students. Therefore, the students get the chance to molest and beat other students since it is difficult to catch them (â€Å"Constitutional Rights Foundation† web). Maintaining discipline in overcrowded schools is also difficult and thus, many students will have discipline issues which results to school violence. It is also true that overcrowded schools get students from poor and low income families. It is claimed that â€Å"Race and ethnicity, income levels, and other measurable elements have often been singled out by public heath experts as risk factors that can contribute to anti-social behavior, from smoking and drinking to violent behavior and suicide† (â€Å"Constitutional Rights Foundation† web). For example, children from low income families and slums attend overcrowded schools. Since there is a lot of violence in low income families and slum neighborhoods, students coming from these neighborhoods bring violence

Reflective assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Reflective - Assignment Example Facts and discussion presented in this assignment are basically structured in accordance with the Gibbs reflective model (1988). To validate the reflection practice, this paper includes a case scenario in which the practitioners involved in the care of the patient did not pay adequate attention to the importance of effective communication. Consequently, this lack of communication affected the patient for the worse. Therefore, this paper aims at scrutinizing the best research evidence to emphasize the need for proper communication in health care in order to refine clinical practice and respect patient values. Several years ago, I was in the cardiac theatre working as an anaesthesia technician and meanwhile, one 5 years old boy who was a cardiac patient was undergoing dental clearance by a trainee dentist. After the trainee was through, the inhalation agent got terminated so as to allow the patient recover prior to the removal of the endotracheal tube. Now in many situations, it is too risky for novices like dentists undergoing training to take full control of actual procedures to be performed on the patients and it also appeared later from a consent form that the patient’s parents had never agreed to the direct involvement of anyone but highly qualified professionals in their child’s treatment in the OT. Clearly, this critical incident originated due to lack of healthy communication between the surgeons and patients which is essential to avoiding risks in the OT. Though the patient did not experience a considerable harm but his parents had desired for any intervention to be carried out by trained professionals and not by trainees. Shock was one of the feelings that overcame me first when from another anaesthesia technician I learned that the patient’s parents had not wished for the involvement of a trainee to avoid any possible risks. This fellow technician despite knowing of the parents’

Land law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Land law - Essay Example in respect of the land., these can be express covenants agreed between the parties or implied covenants as a matter of law (implied could be the obligation of the tenant to pay rent under the equitable lease. (Shiloh Spinners v Harding)1). Lord Templeman in Street v Mountford2 said that the essential feature of a lease is that exclusive possession of the property is given to a person for specified term, in return of rent. The most important issues in respect of exclusive possession is the fact that it gives ownership to the person for a specified period of time, and because of it being a proprietary interest, it can be assigned, and may be binding on subsequent owners of reversion. In the case of a license it is more of a personal right, binding on parties who created it. (Lloyd v. Dugdale)3. Furthermore, in the case of leases the landlord’s right is restricted to remove tenants and to set rent, this is contrary to what happens in the case of licences. Therefore the distinctio n of lease and licence is of the essence. The deciding factor in respect of lease and licence is that of exclusive possession. Exclusive possession is determined by the facts and surrounding circumstances and other factors. Labels in themselves are therefore not decisive, and so the intention of the parties are not relevant, but the substance of rights that have been created have been construed to be relevant. There are certain exemptions where even if the occupier is in exclusive possession a lease is not created ( Lord Denning in Facchini v Bryson)4. In accordance with Lord Templeman in Street, the fact that the substance of agreement and not the label, is what is important, restricts the situations whereby a license would be construed. From the facts, it can be construed that exclusive possession was granted to Tom. The next element that is important is the fact that it must be for a certain term. This is clearly the case as Lionel agreed to grant Tom a lease for five years. The next element of tenancy is that of rent as specified by Lord Templeman in Street. Clearly Tom was under an obligation pay the rent as well as the premium. Thus in the current situation a lease has been created. As far as creation of a lease is concerned, that is done in two stages, the first being the contract being concluded so as to grant a lease between the landlord and tenant, and the next step is that of the execution of the contract by grant of lease by deed. For the existence of a legal lease of more than three years or where a premium is charged are legal only if they are executed by deed, a requirement under section 52(1) of the Law of Property act 1925. A deed has been defined as a formal written document and in accordance with section 1 of Law of Property (Miscellaneous) Provisions Act 1989, a said document is construed to be a deed only if it expressly declared itself to be a deed and is witnessed by one other person. As far as equitable leases are concerned, they tend t o exist when an enforceable contract is entered into between the landl

Why is Buddhism considered to be the only common meeting ground of Essay

Why is Buddhism considered to be the only common meeting ground of Asian cultures - Essay Example In a culture where the idea of diety is so thoroughly solidified, Buddhism focuses on humanitarian deeds rather than worship of a higher being. Buddhism ultimately chooses to find the good in humanity in society where religious warfare continues to plague society. The foundation of Buddhist tradition and practice focus around ethical perceptions. All Abrahamic religions along with Hinduism such as Christianity and Islam all have a divine God. Moreover, Buddhism tends to focus around life and suffering. It is evident that Asia is a very poor continent with poverty plaguing the sphere internationally and domestically. Religious diversity continues to be the problem in the continent as extremists from all religions tend to create chaos and destruction. This is perfectly displayed through John La Plante as he states, â€Å"Buddhism tends to adhere to the teachings of Buddha which calls for a very peaceful and humble approach† (Plante, 34). Moreover, Buddhism allows individuals to practice other religions along with Buddhism. The whole essence of Buddhism is to preach peacefulness and embrace nature. It was clear that people were attracted to the idea in which humanity is the focal point rather than worship and control that other religions enforce. Another key element that proves why Buddhism is embraced by the Asian culture is due to the fact that it promotes peace. Since Buddhism embraces the fact that peace and harmony are vital towards reaching salvation, it completely diminishes the difference of opinion in the religion itself. Buddhism is one of the fewest religions in which sects are not a huge issue. Moreover, Buddhism tends to bridge the differences. Hinduism for instance continues to impose the cast system which clashes against equality. It leads to differences between society and further leads to more division and clashes amongst people. On the other hand,

Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Art - Essay Example It is true that media artists today consider both aesthetics and ethics in their work. In the current investigation, my point of view is that the most important thing in a work of art is its ethical qualities, because no matter how hard one tries, one cannot get away from ethics. To me, concentrating wholly on form and ignoring ethics is basically blinding oneself to a critical aspect of artistic creation and (especially) consumption. Television, movies, and other media arts are judged in terms of morality and ethical qualities as a foremost consideration; to ignore this aspect borders on folly. Media arts are made for public consumption, and part of this public consumption is the ethical judgment of the genre and the product. Television must pass censorship standards, and movies must pass ratings standards. When people watch a movie, especially a mass-market production, they are often watching an ethical polarization of good and evil (good guys vs. bad guys). And if there is ambiguity between who is the bad guy and the good guy, this is also a moral or ethical question. â€Å"From our casual conversations about the moral status of cinematic villains and heroines, through debates about the effects of the portrayal of violence by Hollywood International, to arguments about the portrayal of sex and sexuality, film talk is intimately tied up with ethical concerns and evaluations† (Meskin, 2009). The same can be said of talk about other media arts, especially television, which seeks to appeal to a mass market kind of morality or ethics. To say that media arts is only for malism is all well in good in a very limited art-house context, but to consider the real situation, one must accept the mass-media perspective. In this perspective, ethics and morality are explicitly involved in the consumption of media arts. One cannot subtract ethics from this consideration; to do so would be to lose a large piece of the puzzle in terms of how human beings react

Penn Foster Exam Essay Example for Free

Penn Foster Exam Essay Paragraph 1 I’m replying to your career opportunity posted on your website. I understand that you are actively seeking to hire a Medical Coding and Billing Specialist at one of your Dartmouth Hitchcock locations. This position is responsible for reviewing medical records of discharged patients to ensure that diagnoses and procedures have been recorded; collect, code and compile medical record data for future retrieval, reports and reimbursement purposes. My granddaughter passed away about a year and a half ago. She was air-lifted to one of your locations upon birth where the doctors and nurses tried everything they could to save her; however she died. Through that experience, though, I saw how your employees, handled a very difficult situation, and the nurses and doctors inspired me with their compassion. The Health Care industry has always been a dream of mine, and I decided to pursue a career in Medical Coding and Billing with Penn Foster University. As a Medical Coding and Billing Specialist within your company, I am confident that I could make a valuable contribution to the medical team serving your patients and insurance companies in a timely and professional manner. Paragraph 2 My boss, Ms. Levine has a position available for an assistant here at Northeast Propane. I think this would be an excellent job opportunity for you. From your previous experience, I know you are more than qualified for this position from your interaction with customers in the retail field, you have excellent written and verbal communication skills, you work independently, you are organized and you are great at multitasking. You are always willing to offer help and assistance with coworkers and you have a good rapport with your past employers. This position pays very well and is a Monday-Friday position with no weekends. I honest think you should apply for the position. Please give it some thought and if you decide to apply let me know and I will put in a good word for you.

Causes Of Global Health Issues

Causes Of Global Health Issues Human Immunodeficiency Virus, the so called HIV, is still one of the most influential global health issues. According to the investigations of WHO (2011), it is estimated that approximately 34 million people were infected and 25 million people died because of HIV and related diseases. However, the numbers are still increased by 2.7 million of the newly affected and 1.8 million of death per year (Averting HIV and AIDS, n.d.). The hardest hit area is sub-Saharan Africa, where about one of twenty adults are HIV positive (WHO, 2012). It is the highest number among all the countries. Moreover, Central Asia and Eastern Europe are where the epidemic of HIV spreads fast as well (Averting HIV and AIDS, n.d.). Despite of the developing countries, HIV is still a major problem for the developed countries. It is reported by Averting HIV and AIDS (n.d.), that the United State is accounting for one million HIV infections of the total number and in the UK, the rate of new cases of HIV is still risin g. The figures show that HIV continues to be a serious global health issue and there are numbers of factors to causing it. This essay will discuss the causes that are related to HIV, namely the economy, the politics, the environment and the society and it will suggest how they can be solved. The economic factors, such as: the poverty in low- and middle-income countries and the economic crisis in the donor countries which are related to HIV differ from country to country. First, the poverty in poor countries contributes to the lack of money for the health care system which results in unsafe blood transfusion and shortage of antiretroviral drugs, which then leads to rise in both infection and death rates. According to the World Health Organization (2011), only 48% of blood supplies in low- and middle-income countries have done the screening practices in 2009. In India, one of the risk factors leading to HIV infection is infected blood transfusion (Narain et al, 1994). Furthermore, unsafe blood transfusion because of a lack of blood quality test is the second large problem which leads to HIV infection in Asia (Brown Mulhall Sittitrai, 1994). In addition, antiretroviral medicines in 38% of middle and low income countries was out of stock for a while in 2009 (WHO, 2011). Se cond, the economic crisis in the donor countries leads to the decrease of funding for HIV. Meanwhile, the worlds need is increasing and most of the global funding comes from donor countries. Therefore, the world infection and death rates rise. It is reported by World Health Organization (2011) that the financing of HIV programs increased from 1600 million US dollar in 2001 to 15 900 million US dollar in 2009. However, due to the economic crisis, the donor countries such as the USA reduce the donations by large companies and foundations (USAID, 2009). Although, the economic impacts on HIV are different for countries of different economic levels, the consequences of these are similar and need to be solved. In terms of the individual level, the economic causes to HIV are also different, for example, sex for money for poor people and sex tourism for wealthy people. First, the low incomes use their bodies for money or support which significantly increases the rate of HIV infection. According to Brown (2004), some girls in Sub-Saharan Africa earn money by selling their bodies which is known as survival sex. It is reported by Averting HIV and AIDS (n.d.) that sex workers have high rate of becoming HIV positive in different countries, usually higher than other people. Moreover, in parts of Asia, many sex workers are HIV positive, and this is connected to HIV epidemic (Averting HIV and AIDS, n.d.). In spite of the high infecting possibility, they cannot afford the expensive medical treatment once they are infected. Finally, some rich people spend holiday in countries which have HIV epidemic which intensifying their possibility of HIV infection. According to UNAIDS (2010), about 50% of the peo ple who are newly infected with HIV are accounted by heterosexual transmission in Central Europe are infected abroad. Tourists are huge clients of Caribbeans sex industry (Averting HIV and AIDS, n.d.). Another risk factor that influences the infection rate among rich people is that they are more likely to have multiple sex partners. It is put forward by Johnson and Budlender (2002) that people who earn more are more likely to obtain multiple sex partners which increase the possibility they can get HIV. However, this situation is hardly to deal with because every society has poor people, regardless of developing or developed countries, while rich people are difficult to limit their behaviour. Along with the economic causes, there are also a number of political factors attributed to HIV transition. One of the political problems making the HIV became a global disease is the loophole in the government policies, causing many people from developing countries move into the host countries. Although there are many laws, for example, the congress in the U.S passed a quota with enormous effect on people from Asian, Russia, and Europe (Whitman, n.d.). These laws have been set up to protect people who live in some countries having a large number of expatriates or immigrants, and the AIDS carriers play an important role in the transmission of HIV (Whitman, n.d.). In term of a research, in Canadas immigrant policy, there are enormous loopholes which can be used by many bogus refugees who carry the HIV virus to get into Canada (Dirks, 2006). For example, of the delegates to the AIDS conference who have claimed refugee status, it is known that at least one of those, a delegate from Eritr ea, is infected with the HIV virus and has already started treatment in Toronto and his situation will not prevent him from being accepted if the IRB, Canadas largest independent administrative tribunal, finds him to be a refugee (Dirks, 2006). This means that the loophole in the government policies can make people feel disappointed with the government. It is shown that government should take measures instantly. Another example caused by the governments carelessness is the illegal Mexican and Central American immigrants. According to Wagner and Amato (2010), in spite of the number of Central American migrants crossing Mexico to reach the United States has decline almost 70 percent over the last five years, it does not show that is an optimistic condition, however, the local government does nothing, although they were aware of this outcome. This shows the governments need to restrict the illegal immigrants. Another political factor is the lack of political control of blood transmission. For example, governments in developing countries do not pay attention to the safety measures and disinfections in the hospitals. This means many people can easily get infected by sharing syringes or using dirty needles. According of a WHO (2000), there are 21 million hepatitis B injection, 2 million hepatitis C injections and 260,000 HIV cases caused by reuse of syringes. In addition, people in some communities, do not know about the risk given by the re-use needle. Government should apply strict control on the hospitals. In Russia, the government uses some political force to protect people. Russian government should do much more to prevent the spread of HIV among an estimated two million drug users (Galpin, 2009). It is believed that there are 1 million people getting HIV by sharing the needles (Galpin, 2009). Although the chief medical official of Russia admits the epidemic coming from the HIV and insi sts it is not the legal loophole, the disease spreads because the lack of the governments control. This proves that the governments need to make the law firmer and strengthen the control. The other factor causing HIV is the psychological status. Psychological factors contribute to the spread of HIV among women. Women, especially in urban areas, experiencing some psychological health matters or traumatic events take up a high proportion of HIV transmission such as sexual behavior, injection drug use etc. Heavy psychological stress may result in unhealthy mental status. Women, who have been abused, are likely to suffer from mental diseases, for instance, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which may affect their behavior and attitude towards HIV (Sharp et al., 2008). For example, women who have personal traumatic experiences are more possible to have high risk sex that can enlarge the possibility of HIV infection (Sharp et al., 2008). It is also mentioned by Sharp S. et al. (2008) that there are more HIV infected people among individuals who have traumas before than normal people. That means some individuals who are infected HIV are frantic and they are not aware the c onsequences. Due to this behavior, they will probably become HIV infected and transmit the virus to others. In Canada, about 42% women have HIV by injecting drugs, and in America the rate is 19% (Sharp et al., 2008). However, the Canadian aboriginals not only use drugs themselves, but also contract HIV from their sexual patterns who injecting drugs (Sharp et al., 2008). In summary, women who have psychological matters need to be treated and informed about the risks or the illness. Moreover, chronic anxiety, panic, stress and depression can lead to injure immunologic function which has an impact on HIV. These psychological diseases are harmful to peoples health. Mental stress increases the content of hormone cortisol, more cortisol in the body decline T cells rapidly. In the relation to this cortisol will increase 20-fold than normal period. This high level risk may result in dangerous infections and high rate of death. Some people have AIDS-phobia and they do not have medical checks and thus they are not aware of the fact they carry the virus. The symptoms of that type of phobia include weight loss, wasting, decrease T cells counts and other signs considered indicative AIDS. Professor Dorian also thinks that a beneficial psychological status can have a positive result for a disease (The Unhived Mind Website, 2006). Above all, both psychological diseases and conditions can affect HIV, people in urban areas especially women have a high rate of infection. That me ans psychology has a significant effect on HIV. Facing the enormous pressure of mental aspects, HIV transmission can spread in short order because of people who have mental diseases lead to the proliferation of virus. There are also several problems need to be solved among social causes. Migration which is a society factor which causes harm, such as irregular sexual relations, poor living conditions and the virus spread by women whose husband left them. According to the UNAIDS (2010), the male migrant workers who were reported in Carletonville, a city in South Africa, only 5.4% of them have regular partners. The proportion of the male migrants who had at least one casual partner were over 50%, and there are 53% of the female migrants who have sex with strangers for money, so most migrant workers were often infected with HIV because of this kind of irregular relationship. People who changed the accommodation are three times more likely to contract HIV, (UNAIDS ¼Ã…’2010) .This means poverty causes frequent immigrations and then unreasonable sexual relations occur, in developed countries this cannot happen very often. Migrant workers usually do not have decent living conditions. They are incessan tly put in barracks and single-sex hostels to live, such as gold miners, as UNAIDS (2010) shows, 90% of the black employees are migrants and 89% of them live in single-sex hostels. This means that they have to leave their spouses or regular sexual partners. These people often engage in casual sexual relationship, so HIV is easier to spread in such conditions. Moreover, UNAIDS (2010) mentions that in many migrant couples. The female partner is continually HIV positive, so this means that women need more income when their husbands leave them and sex is an easier way to earn a living. Injecting drugs, involving into sex work and sexing between males are the causes of HIV wide spread, such as in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. About one quarter of 3.7 million of people who inject drugs live with AIDS virus because of sharing needles and poor injection quality. In the Russian Federation, more than 37% of drug users were deemed to have HIV (Johnson and Budlender, 2002). Injectors without disinfection often have residual blood and blood transmission is a simple way for next user to infect HIV. Drug users are constantly with irrational sexual relationships. A high HIV infection level is found in Ukraine because 14% to 31% of sex workers almost inject drugs at the same time (Johnson and Budlender, 2002). This leads to AIDS virus diffuse without difficulty. About 45% of people living with HIV in Ukraine were women until 2009, compared with 41% in 2004 and 37% in 1999 (Johnson and Budlender, 2002). This is a rapid growth and it is easy to know that there is not enough se nse of security and money for women. Urban men who have sex with men occupy more than 10% in twelve countries as well as Costa Rica. In Central America about 5.1% of them are infected with AIDS virus. In 23 European countries, the number of men who have sex with men from 2000 to 2006 increased by 86 % (Johnson and Budlender, 2002). This means the society becomes more equal and less discrimination, but all together necessary protection needs to be known to avoid infecting the virus. In conclusion, the factors that affect HIV infection exist in aspects which include the economy, the politic, the psychology and the society. In terms of economy, the causes differ between both countries and individuals. The poverty of individuals and countries, the decreasing donation due to the economic crisis and the sex tourism and multiple sex partners for wealthy people are the main points that are presented in the assignment. The possible way to solve these problems is to develop policies and laws to help the poor and restrict the rich. Political problems can also cause HIV become a global disease. Two important factors are the faultiness of immigrant policies and drug use without the governments controlling. Tons of observable facts show that the government in those countries should give more emphasis on this problem. Many people addicting in drug has been a new cause leading to HIV become the global disease. These all show that the government in those countries should give m ore emphasis on this problem. Psychological factors means that people have much pressure especially in urban areas. They have mental or other diseases which result in HIV directly. To solve this issue, people live under stress or have psychological diseases should relax themselves and attempt to avoid pressure. Last of all, migration, drugs and irregular sexual relationship for social aspect can cause HIV become a global issue, too. One solution for the government is to formulate policies to increase the employment rate. When people have jobs, they can get a more regular life and there will be less drug addicts. Another way is to strengthen the management of drug and educate people necessary knowledge about protecting themselves from HIV. Therefore, it can be concluded that HIV is a significant global health issue that needs to be deal with carefully and efficiently. Although it needs time to make a difference, both governments and individuals need to participate in the approach and be consistent to make progress in the future. Word count: 2576

The Importance of Ion Channels Essay -- Disease, Disorders

Oculocutaneous albinism is the lack of color in an individual skin hair and eyes. This is a condition that exists from birth. This a The Importance of Ion Channels: An Analysis of the Long QT Syndrome Inheritance method Long QT Syndrome (LQTS) is an uncommon congenital heart condition in which patients affected by this syndrome are at high risks for cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death due to mutations in cardiac ion channels (Crotti et al., 2008). There are two particular variants to the Long QT Syndrome; one is called the Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome (J-LN), which is associated with deafness, and the other has been named the Romano-Ward Syndrome (R-W), in which there is no connection with deafness (Crotti et al., 2008). The Romano-Ward Syndrome is known to be the more common type of LQTS and is autosomal dominant (Russell et al., 1996), whereas the Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome is less common and is autosomal recessive (Crotti et al., 2008). Gene(s) responsible or implicated in the disorder The research community has divided the Long QT Syndrome by types, depending upon the different mutations in four of the cardiac ion- channel genes, KVLQT1, HERG, SCN5A, and KCNE1 (Zareba et al., 1998). Mutations within these voltage-gated ion channels ultimately disrupt the normal nerve impulses that take place within myocardial cells. Sodium and potassium channels play key roles during action potentials as it is through these channels that their respective ions are able to enter and leave the cell in order to generate electrical excitation or inhibition throughout. Such channels are composed of subunits of proteins, and damage within even one subunit can alter the overall function of the action potential, which will alte... ...ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007: 52. Priori, S., Napolitano, C., Schwartz, P., (1999). Low penetrance in the long-qt syndrome. Circulation 99, 529-533. Russell, M., Dick, M., Collins, F., Brody, L,. (1996). KVLQT1 mutations in three families with familial or sporadic long QT syndrome. Human Molecular Genetics 5, 1319-1324. Westenskow, P., Splawski, I., Timothy, K., Keating, M., Sanguinetti, M., (2004). Compound mutations: a common cause of severe long-QT syndrome. Circulation 109, 1834-1841. Zareba, W., Moss, A., Schwartz, P., Vincent, M., Robinson, J., Priori, S., Benhorin, J., Locati, E., Towbin, J., Keating, M., Lehmann, M., Hall, J., Andrews, M., Napolitano, C., Timothy, K., Zhang, L., Medina, A., MacCluer, J., (1998). Influence of the genotype on the clinical course of the long-QT syndrome. The New England Journal of Medicine 339, 960-965.

The Philosophical and Scientific Methods of René Descartes :: Biography Biographies

The Philosophical and Scientific Methods of Renà © Descartes Renà © Descartes (1596 – 1650) is one of the most widely known philosophers in history and he is frequently discussed as an inventor of the modern scientific method. Rene Descartes was born on March 31, 1596, in La Haye of Touraine. He came from a wealthy family, and thus did not have any real financial worries. At age ten, his father sent him to the College Henri IV at La Fleche. This was a newly established Jesuit school, which was considered one of the best in Europe in terms of academic quality. Although Descartes appreciated what he was taught in mathematics, he was nonetheless discontent with the scholastic teaching he received from that school (Cress, 1993). Scholasticism was a teaching based on the doctrines of Aristotle and the Christian church. Followers of scholasticism often looked upon Aristotle’s work and the teachings of the church as authoritative figures. Indeed, much of their activity consisted in carefully scrutinizing the classical works of Aristotle in an attempt to resolve any contradictions between his works and the doctrines of the church. One of the reasons why Descartes was dissatisfied with Aristotelian-Scholasticism was because of the circular arguments it offered in explaining natural phenomena. For example, Aristotle’s argument that it is in the nature of earthly matter to fall down towards the Earth was to Descartes not an explanation, but rather only a description of what was happening. Furthermore, Descartes argues that terms used in scholasticism such as â€Å"heaviness† and â€Å"gravity† were not clearly understood. Thus, Descartes then proposed to do away with the foundations of scholasticism and start again from the beginning (Cottingham, 1986). Descartes’ dissatisfaction with scholasticism and his interest in beginning with new foundations of knowledge reflect the historical-scientific context of his time. Prior to the seventeenth century, medieval ideas had predominated. These ideas included the necessity to resurrect ancient knowledge, and to discourage innovations. By the seventeenth century, the idea that modern men could be wiser than the ancients was stimulated by the likes of Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon. However, Bacon and Descartes led two distinct schools of thought in regard to how one should pursue the acquisition of knowledge. While Descartes favored a more rational and theoretical approach, Bacon favored an empirical and practical approach.

Japans Purple Machine Essay -- Codes Communications Papers

Japan's Purple Machine Codes and ciphers have played many crucial roles in the past 3000 years, protecting the secrets of caesars and laymen. In World War II numerous nations used cryptographic systems to conceal their secret intentions and plans from the spying eyes of enemies everywhere. Cryptanalysts, however, undeterred by the complexity of the crypto-systems, worked diligently, trying to find any sort of weakness that would allow a break into the cipher and expose the secrets contained within. During the late 1930s two nations, Japan and the United States, were in a state of intense negotiations regarding various political conflicts. The US trying to indirectly help the Allies set numerous conditions for Japan that prevented her from receiving crucial resources and embarking on its agreed upon mission with its European friends. In the midst of this, a machine cipher, codenamed Purple was performing a vital role in the war making policies for both Japan and the United States. A rarely told story a bout a secret operation in the US involved in breaking Japan's most secure crypto-system reveals a truly remarkable set of events that not only shaped the outcome of WWII, but also spearheaded the launch of numerous intelligence agencies for protecting the citizens of its nations and preventing surprise attacks such as the one on Pearl Harbor. Japan's New Cipher Machine In the early 1930s, the Japanese Navy purchased a commercial version of the German Enigma and proceeded to modify it by adding features which enhanced its security (Kahn 6). The system that evolved was one of the most secure cryptographic machines in the world. The machine was codenamed "Red" by the US government and was used to encrypt the highest level ... ...ng. March 01, 2004. http://www.faircount.com/web04/pearlharbor/pdfs/codebreakers.pdf Hatch, A. David. Enigma and Purple: How the Allies Broke German and Japanese Codes During the War. March 06, 2004. http://cadigweb.ew.usna.edu/Lwdj/papers/cryptoday/hatch j,urple.ps Kahn, David. The Codebreakers. New York: Scribner, 1996. Kurzeja, Karen. Pearl Harbor & Ciphering Methods. March 1, 2004. http://raphael.math.uic.edu/Jeremy/crypt/contrib/kurzeja.html Momsen, Bill. Codebreaking and Secret Weapons in World War II. March 07, 2004. http://home.earthlink.net/–nbrassl/3enigma.htm Perloff, James. Pearl Harbor. The New American. December 8, 1986. http://www.thenewamerican.com/departments/feature/l 999/070499.htm Young, Frank Pierce. Flame & Blame at Pearl Harbor. The Responsibility Question. March 01, 2004. http://www.microworks.net/pacific/special/flamel.htm

Analysis on Business Marketing

â€Å"Everything is worth what its purchaser will pay for it. † This phrase was said many centuries ago and is still worth today. Any time customer, in fact these customers whose costs are driven by what they purchase, increasingly look to purchasing as a way to increase profits and thus pressure suppliers to reduce prices. A good example beside the one in the article is when you are going to buy a car and you start searching about what car dealer is the best for you to buy yours. How can you decide which of the dealers it's the best for you, it is a good question. A growing number of suppliers have created a customer value models, that is no more than data-driven representations, of the worth in monetary terms, of what the suppliers are going to could do for its customers. I have been talking about values, but what they are and what values are in business is what I'm going to explain right now. In business market values are the worth in monetary form of the technical, economic, service and social benefits any customer receives in exchange for the price it pays for a market offering. An example of value in monetary term is dollars per unit, guilders per liter, or kroner per hour. On the other hand, benefits are no more than in which any costs a customer incurs in obtaining the desire benefits, except for purchase price, are included. And finally value is what a customer gets in exchange for the price it pays. In fact, value is one of the two elemental characteristics of marketing offer; the other one is price. Field value assessments that is the most commonly and accurate method used to build customer value models. This value is used to collect data about customer value models. However, if the field value does not work suppliers use direct and indirect survey question and focus groups. As everything in our life, the first time you do something is the most difficult. To get started with the customer value model the first thing a supplier need to do is to put together the right kind of value research team. In this team should be included the people with the product, engineers in the specified field, and people with marketing experience. This last option is very important because it is really important to have people who know the customer way of thinking. The next step is to know the right market segment. Knowing this, the suppliers create a base with at least twelve customers to build an initial value model. Then it is a good time to generate a comprehensive list of value elements. These elements will be the one that affects the costs and benefits of the offering in the customer's business. The elements could be technical, economic, service or social in nature and will vary in their tangibility. But suppliers have to be very carefully on checking which elements left out, especially those that might make the suppliers' market offering look unfavorable next to the next-best-alternative offering will undermine the projects credibility. By knowing as many elements as possible the team will be able to determine more accurately the difference in functionality and performance its offers provides relative to the next-best-alternative. Most of the time the customers do not know that they have the data information that the suppliers are looking for. Some time the only way to find this data is for the team members to ask around until they come across the person who knows where to find the information. These teams also need to be creative in finding other sources of information. Independent industry consultants or knowledgeable personnel in the supplier company can be good sources of initial estimates. The comfort with which team can establish monetary estimates for its value elements will vary. Actually, most suppliers do not even attempts to assign monetary amounts to social elements. Instead, they put those elements and discuss them with the customer in a qualitative way after presenting quantitative results. An example of this is the Qualcomm Company, that not assign monetary amounts to many less-tangible elements but still includes them in its analysis as â€Å"value placeholders. † In any field value assessments, the suppliers will find that some assumptions must be made in order to complete an analysis. It is critical to suppliers to be explicit about any assumptions it makes. If a customer does not know how or why the team assigned a certain value to an element, the supplier's credibility will be compromised. After building the initial value model the suppliers should validate it, by conducting additional assessments with other customers in the market segment. Doing this the supplier will also learn how the value its offering provide varies across kinds of customers. The supplier will also need to create value-based sale tools. One common sale tool is a value case history, which is no more than written accounts that document the costs savings or added value that a customer receive from its uses of a supplier market offering. Now it is a good time to put an understanding of value to use. A good way to do this is using the supplier knowledge to tailor supplementary service, programs and systems in its current market offering and to guide the development of new offerings. A company's ability to manage flexible markets offerings successfully rest on its understanding of the value each component of an offering creates as well as its associates cost. Identifying and eliminating value drains result in better allocation of resources and improved profitability. Gaining customer is another of the steps of this project. Knowing of how the market offers specifically deliver value to customer enables suppliers to craft persuasive propositions. By providing evidence to customers of the company's accomplishments, suppliers demonstrate their trustworthiness and commitment to customers. In this way customers feel more self-confident with the company they are doing business with. Understanding value in business is the essence of customer value management. It is also good for delivering superior values and obtain an equitable return for it. Now are you ready to choose your car's vendor.

Four Functions of Management Essay

1. Explain the relationships among the four functions of management. The four functions of management are planning, organizing, influencing, and controlling. Each can be discussed individually, but as the text says are integrally related. Each play a key role in meeting organizational goals. Planning involves choosing the tasks that are to be performed to meet the organizations goals, this is tied to organization. Because organizing is tied to planning it can be interpreted as used the planned task, and then assigning them to people within the organization to put into action. Next is influencing, as you have made plans, and organized it into task, your influence over the personnel assigned and how they approach the organizations goals is key. How you motivate, lead, or direct them toward the goals is the primary goal. In a sense, influencing is a way you can obtain the fourth and final function, controlling. By measuring the performance of the personnel who have responsibility for the assigned tasks, you can then compare this to expected standards, then either influence them towards more positive gains, plan additional tasks, or steps to achieve, more, or continue to monitor progress towards goals. Each function with separate is integrally related and implements to meal organizational goals. 2. How can controlling help a manager to become more efficient? This ongoing process gives the manager the ability to gather information that measures performance, compare that progress to established standards, and then decide of addition steps or changes need to be made to insure compliance with the established standards. This process of continued process improvement, and supervising the results is paramount to achieving goals. 3. What is the value in having managers at the career exploration stage within an organization? Why? The decline stage? Why? Managers in the career exploration stage, are in a growth or upward trend in their careers, they are active in the tasks of finding that position that suits them and meets a certain comfort level, these managers are in a learning stage, willing to take on new challenges, and try new things. They are highly motivated, and working towards established goals. The decline stage is usually identified as a follow on to a maintenance phase, where no upward growth has occurred, and or the employee/manager has begun to stagnant in their position. These older, longer serving employees, have a wealth of experience, but are failing to meet the originally Scott D. Oram  and expected performance standard. They can be used to train new levels of management, and finding those members of the next generation who are going to become the next set of exploration-minded individuals. 4. Discuss your personal philosophy for promoting the careers of women managers within an organization. Why do you hold this philosophy? Explain any challenges that you foresee in implementing this philosophy within a modern organization. How will you overcome these challenges? 5. How will you be able to use the classical approach to management in your job as a manager? 6. How does Henri Fayol’s contribution to management differ from the contributions of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth? 7. Discuss the primary limitation of the classical approach to management. Would this approach be more significant to manager of today than managers would in the more distant past? Explain. 8. What is the ‘systems approach’ to management? How do the concepts of closed and open systems relate to this approach?

Cushing’s Syndrome

Cushing’s Syndrome is a hormone disorder caused by the body tissues being exposed to high levels of the hormone cortisol for a long period of time. The disease is commonly caused by taking corticosteroid medicine in high doses over an extended period of time. The condition can also be caused by the body’s excess production of cortisol due to an overactive adrenal gland. It is a rare disease that mostly affects adults between the ages of 20 to 50. Females are more likely to get the disease than males due to an adrenal or pituitary tumor. Cushing’s Syndrome signs and symptoms include progressive obesity and skin changes. There is rapid gain in the upper body fat deposit along the collar bone and the back of the neck which is often called â€Å"buffalo humps† and a rounded face which is referred to as â€Å"moon face†. The skin stretches causing pink or purple stretch marks along the stomach, thighs, breasts, and arms. A woman with the syndrome could experience excess body hair growth on their face, neck, chest, stomach, and thighs. It could cause their menstrual cycle to become irregular or stop. A man with the syndrome could experience decreased fertility and erectile dysfunction. Other signs and symptoms include excess sweating, fatigue, muscle weakness, headaches, high blood pressure, thinning and fragility of the skin causing it to bruise easily and heal poorly. Other symptoms also include dryness of the skin, acne, weakened bones, cognitive difficulties, and high blood sugar which may lead to diabetes. Cushing’s Syndrome can also cause loss of emotional control which could lead to depression, anxiety, and irritability. The adrenal gland of the endocrine system produces a number of hormones, including cortisol. Cortisol plays a number of roles throughout the body. It helps with regulating the body’s blood pressure, which keeps the cardiovascular system functioning normal. It helps to react to stress by converting proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into usable energy. The condition can be caused by medication such as prednisone that has the same effects as the cortisol that is produced in the body. A doctor may prescribe this type medicine to patients with inflammatory disease such as asthma, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, or to prevent the body from rejecting a transplanted organ. The treatment of these conditions often requires higher amounts of cortisol than the body normally needs in a day. The condition can be caused by your own body producing excess cortisol. This could occur from the excess production of one or both of the adrenal glands of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates production of cortisol. A benign tumor of the pituitary gland can cause secretion of an excess amount of ACTH, which will, in return, stimulate the adrenal gland to make more cortisol than the body needs. As mentioned previously, the condition occurs more often in women. Urine and blood lab tests are performed to measure the hormone levels in the urine and blood. These tests will show if the body is producing an excessive amount of cortisol. Saliva tests are also used by analyzing cortisol levels in salvia collected at night. Normally, cortisol levels rise and fall throughout the day, but levels in people without Cushing’s Syndrome will drop considerably in the evening. Imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans can detect abnormalities such as tumors in the pituitary and/or adrenal glands. All of these tests can help a doctor diagnose Cushing’s Syndrome and rule out other medical conditions. The treatment for Cushing’s Syndrome depends on what caused the cortisol to be high in the body. The treatment should be designed to lower the high level of cortisol in the body. If the disease was caused by long term exposure to corticosteroids, then the treatment would be reducing the use of corticosteroid. For patients with asthma, arthritis, or other conditions that require medication to manage their illness, doctors can prescribe noncorticosteroid drugs. Surgery is recommended if the disease is caused by a tumor that is present in the pituitary gland, adrenal glands, lungs, or pancreas. If surgery does not remove the tumor completely, radiation therapy is used in conjunction with the operation. Medications such as Nizoral, Lysodren, and Metopirone are prescribed to control production of cortisol when the surgery or radiation therapy doesn’t work. The length of recovery depends on the severity and cause of the Cushing’s Syndrome. Patients should be advised to increase their daily activities slowly due to weakened muscles. They need to be sure that they are eating sensibly and getting enough calcium and Vitamin D to help strengthen their bones. They need to monitor their mental health because depression can develop due to being overwhelmed or having difficulty coping with recovery. For aches and pains; the patient can take hot baths and do low impact exercises such as water aerobics. For patient recovery from cognitive difficulties, they can do crossword puzzles or math problems to exercise their brain and help to improve their brain function.

Tiger Brands Limited Essay

Tiger Brands Limited, a Top 40 JSE Limited company whose footprint extends across the African continent and beyond, is one of the largest manufacturers and marketers of FMCG products in Southern Africa, and has been for several decades. Tiger Brands has been built over several decades through the acquisition and clustering of businesses which own leading food, home and personal care brands. It’s success is grown and maintained through the perpetual renovation and innovation of its brands, while its approach to expansion, acquisitions and joint ventures has given traction to a distribution network that now spans more than 22 African countries. The Group focus is on the core business of FMCG categories that spread synergy across the value chain – which a broad basket of categories spans food, home and personal care as well as baby products. The wide range of brands are underpinned by comprehensive research and meaningful insights into each of the markets in which Tiger Brands operates. Tiger Brands is without question a world–class operation – and will continue to hold and grow its position through constant investment in every asset of the business, be it in people, brands, technology, efficiency, quality or sustainability.

Internationl Business Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Internationl Business Practice - Essay Example The main person responsible for coining the term globalization is considered to be Theodore Levitt. With the passage of time, the phenomenon has grown at a steady rate whereby the setting under which it is held is one that focuses on the global patterns related with the sociological findings. The aspect of whether or not globalization is a newer form of western imperialism is manifested in the definition of the same word. Globalization, for that matter, is remarked as Internationalization since the nature of the two terms is on a worldwide scale more than anything else. West tries to exploit the basis of globalization which the third world countries could bring to the benefit of the developed nations. However, on the part of the two terms, the one thing common however is the fact that these have identified themselves well with the changing (and growing) trends, where most of these are credited on the shoulders of the World War II, after which there has been a resurgent rat race nonetheless. Globalization is a phenomenon and it is one that is here to stay for long. The world has become a global village due to globalization and it is a good omen if seen in the proper perspectives. In an economic zone, globalization plays a significant role at increasing trade on an interna tional front which as compared to the global economy, is much faster and ahead of its time. Globalization improves the technological infrastructures and supports in the development of the telecommunications not only on a regional scale but throughout the world, thus providing help and facilitation to the west more than anything else. With the help of globalization, the legal stance is one that focuses more on the increase in the number of different standards worldwide, which in all essence must be made use of. These include copyright laws, privacy obligations, patenting and others which somehow or the other mesh along well with the legal framework of different multinationals and institutions

Manager's Perspective Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Manager's Perspective Paper - Essay Example In order to get rid of such terrorist activities we need to develop an efficient aviation security program. As we are working in a world that is full of threats and dangers we need proper security programs to reduce the destructive activities that may take place within an airport or aircraft. An aviation security program helps us in setting up the security standards through which we can integrate different factors via which we can improve and enhance the security level of the aircraft and the airport, it also enables us to communicate and collaborate with all the employees in an efficient and fast manner. Aviation security programs also devise strategies through which we can handle our employees and assets in an effective manner. Aviation security became a major part of airports after the accident of 9/11. After the terrorist activities of September 11, 2001, the aviation security rose to a political level and certain mandatory requirements were declared by EurActive which were to be followed internationally.

Money and Banking Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Money and Banking Assignment - Essay Example This is due to the fact that banks are involved in risky investments without fear or concern about the repercussions nations may face in the advent of losses. Risky investments are aggravated by the fact that banks will be bailed out in case of losses by central banks. This can facilitate organized losses and economic failures by rogue individuals with the aim of channelling all the banks’ financial assets into their possession and then request for central banks’ intervention. This burden, through the central banks is channelled back to taxpayers. The reverse is also true. If financial institutions were unable to solicit funds from central banks, then chances of them indulging in risky investments would be very minimal. (Hughkitt13 2012) III. Compare the use of open-market-operations, central bank lending facilities (rediscounting), and changes in reserve requirements to control the money supply on the following criteria: flexibility, reversibility, effectiveness, and speed of implementation. The best monetary policy should implement the following criteria to be considered effective: flexibility, reversibility, effectiveness and higher speed of implementation. On the issue of flexibility, the best method to use would be to change the reserve requirements. Depending on prevailing market conditions, reserve requirements can be easily adjusted to either reduce the money supply or increase it. The process is done on a daily basis, making it the most effective and also the fastest method to implement. Central bank rediscounting is a faster method to implement than open-market-operations since they can be obtained easily under short notice. They are also more flexible owing to the fact that they require fewer channels to get them. OMOs are more rigid and are only implemented once financial dignitaries meet and agree on the way forward. However, when we consider